Abstract
When most people have so much reliance on their IQ, they might ignore other complex applications of their mind. Due to this thought sometimes when people feel that their IQ is low, they may be disappointed about their abilities and think that their activities may not pull a result.
Whereas Hedlund and Sternberg (2000) found that IQ only accounts for about 20% to 30% of professional success.
Spiritual intelligence (SI) is one of the human abilities that distinct human from the other beings.
SI is a huge and an inherently difficult term to define. Even though it sounds familiar, most people have never heard the term, never read about it and never discussed it with anyone else. Some may think they know its meaning, but they may be confusing SQ with spirituality so in this article we concentrate on the reviewing of theorists viewpoints about definitions, dimensions and ways of development of spiritual intelligence.
Have you ever heard this expression?
There are a lot of challenges to define and describe spiritual intelligence: what is it, how it functions, and whether it can be learned or improved; though none of the authors addressed all of these issues (Crichton. 2008 .p. 8).
The history of the development of our knowledge about intelligence is fascinating. Although leading thinkers had been searching for a long time for any clues as to ‘what makes us tick?' and ‘what makes us smart?', amazingly, the concept of the Intelligent Quotient has been around for less than 100 years – the first experiments in intelligence testing by ‘scientific means' started only at the beginning of the 20th century (Buzan. 2002. p.Xii).
However, with developing knowledge about intelligence such as: IQ and EQ; scientists said that:
Neither IQ nor EQ, separately or in combination, is enough to explain to neither the full complexity of human intelligence nor the vast richness of the human soul and imagination.
Computer has high IQ: they know what the rules are and can follow them without making mistakes. Animals often have EQ: they have a sense of situation they are in and know how respond appropriately.
But neither computers nor animals ask why we have these rules or this situation.
They work within boundaries, playing a finite game. SQ allows human being to be creative, to change the rules and alter situations.
It allows us to play with the boundaries, to play an infinite game. It is in its transformative power that SQ differs mainly from EQ (Zohar & Marshall. 2000. p.5).
Today spiritual Intelligence is considered by many to be the most important of our much intelligence, and has the power to transform our life, civilization, the planet and the course of history (Buzan. 2002. p.Xii).
Many people confuse being spiritual intelligence with spirituality, but they are very different things.
Definition of SI
There are a lot of definitions about spiritual intelligence.
Emmons (2000a, 2000b), for example, draws on Gardner's definition of intelligence and argues that spirituality can be viewed as a form of intelligence because it predicts functioning and adaptation and offers capabilities that enable people to solve problems and attain goals (Amram.2009. p.43).
In looking at spirituality through the lens of intelligence, Emmons (1999) writes, spiritual intelligence is a framework for identifying and organizing skills and abilities needed for the adaptive use of spirituality. (Amram,2009. p.44)
Zohar and marshal said that: "With spiritual intelligence we can place our actions and our lives in a wider, richer, meaning-giving context, the intelligence with witch we can assess that one course of action or one life-path is more meaningful than another" (Zohar & Marshall. 2000. p.4).
Levin (2000), in her book, "Spiritual Intelligence: Awakening the power of your spirituality and intuition", conceptualizes spiritual intelligence as ‘a marriage of spirituality and intelligence' (Nasel, 2004. p.67).
McGeachy (2001) suggest that:
"SQ is that part of the individual that enable him/her to see the consequences of his/her action, create a purpose for their lives, change boundaries, ask " why" the particular rule and create the possibility of having meaning in their life. So, low SQ means that the individual will make so many errors of judgment that those they deal with (McGeachy. C. 2001. p.63).
Spiritual intelligence is an authentic intelligence that encompasses thinking, conceptualization, and problem solving.
Wolman defined spiritual intelligence as:
"Spiritual intelligence is a human capacity about the meaning of life, and to simultaneously experience the seamless between each of us and the world in witch we live." (Wolman, R. 2001. p.83)
Sisk described spiritual intelligence as: " a deep self-awareness in which one becomes more and more aware of the dimensions of self, not simply as a body, but as a mind-body and spirit". When we employ our spiritual intelligence, we reach the extraordinary place in which our mind no longer produces data of the type wanted or needed and the need for intuition becomes accelerated (Sisk. 2002. p.209).
Vaughan (2002) who describe SI as
"a capacity for a deep understanding of existential questions and insight into multiple levels of consciousness, it implies awareness of our relationship to the transcendent, to each other, to the earth, and all beings" (Amram,2009. p.45).
McMullen wrote that:" If cognitive intelligence is about thinking and emotional intelligence is about feeling, then spiritual intelligence is about being"( McMullen. 2003. p.60).
Nasel believe that Spiritual intelligence represents the ability to draw on one's spiritual abilities and resources to better identify, find meaning in, and resolve existential, spiritual, and practical issues (Nasel,2004. p.42).
Spiritual Intelligence (SQ) is defined by Wigglesworth, C. (2006) as: the ability to behave with Wisdom and Compassion, while maintaining inner and outer peace (equanimity), regardless of the circumstances. There are three important pieces to this definition.
First: The word "behave" is critical. SQ is not about just "feeling good about people." That is relatively easy to accomplish when we are alone in prayer or meditation! SQ is about how we behave—how we actually make decisions and act—in the everyday, stressful world of interacting with difficult people and situations
Second: The word "love" in English is a very sloppy word. In English we say that we "love" our children and we "love" ice cream. It is one word with many uses making it hard to use for leadership purposes or for training in SQ. There are many definitions for love that might help, but an accurate and elegant one comes from the East where the saying is: "Love is a bird with two wings: one wing is Compassion, the other wing is Wisdom…if either wing is missing the bird cannot fly."
Thus high SQ people behave with love – now defined as Wisdom and Compassion. Wisdom is the most elevated stage development of the intellect (head). Compassion is the most elevated stage of Emotional Intelligence (heart). The behavior which results from such highly developed head-plus-heart competency is skillful
Third, maintaining "inner and outer peace" relates to an interior calm (Wigglesworth.. 2006).
And now David Brian King (2008) proposed that "Spiritual intelligence denotes a set of adaptive mental capacities which are based on nonmaterial and transcendent aspects of reality, specifically those which are related to the nature of one's existence, personal meaning, transcendence, and expanded states of consciousness."
This definition includes:
1- Critical Existential thinking
The capacity to critically contemplate the nature of existence, reality, the universe, space, time, death, and other existential or metaphysical issues.
2-Personal Meaning Production
The ability to derive personal meaning and purpose from all physical and mental experiences, including the capacity to create and master a life purpose
3- Transcendental Awareness
The capacity to identify transcendent dimensions of the self (e.g., a transpersonal self), of others, and of the physical world during the normal, waking state of consciousness.
4- Consciousness State
The ability to enter and exit higher/spiritual states of consciousness at one's own discretion (as in deep contemplation, meditation, prayer, etc.) (King, 2008).
Dimensions of SI:
Emmons (2000a) proposes five components for SI as follows:
(a) ability to utilize spiritual resources to solve problems,
(b) ability to enter heightened states of consciousness,
(c) ability to invest everyday activities and relationships with a sense of the sacred,
(d) capacity for transcendence of the physical and material, and
(e) capacity to be virtuous (Amram,2009. p.44).
However, in responding to criticisms from Mayer (2000) who argues that virtuous behavior belongs more to ethics and personality rather than intelligence, Emmons (2000b) drops (e) the capacity to be virtuous from his revised definition of SI and retains the first four (a through d) components of his model (Amram.2009. p.45).
In Levin's view(2000), it fundamentally involves a wider perceptual understanding of life and life experiences, as well as acting on the following spiritual truths; not causing harm; honoring the interconnectedness of all life; taking responsibility for oneself and one's actions (and their effects); respecting difference; accepting change.
According to Levin (2000), experiencing spirituality as an intrinsic part of oneself is necessary for being able to apply spiritual principles to one's behavior and lifestyle. Thus, spiritual intelligence is manifested when a person integrates their spirituality with the rest of their life, and acts or operates from their spiritual principles (Nasel.2004. p.67).
Wolman (2001) designed PSI model. The PSI is an eighty-item inventory designed to help people assess the focus and pattern of own spirituality.
Those factors may be described briefly as follows:
1- Divinity: the sense of connection to a god figure or divine energy source
2- Mindfulness: awareness of the interconnection of the mind and body, with an emphasis on practices that enhance that relationship.
3- Intellectuality: a cognitive, inquiring approach to spirituality, with a focus on reading and discussing sacred texts.
4- community: the quality of spirituality enacting connection to community at large, whether in charity or politics.
5- Extrasensory perception: spiritual feelings and perceptions associated with nonrational ways of knowing, including prophetic dreams near-death experiences.
6- Childhood spirituality: a Personal, historical association to spirituality through family tradition and activity.
7- Trauma: a stimulus to spiritual awareness trough experiencing physical or emotional illness or trauma to the self or loved ones (Wolman, 2001. p.2).
Vaughan's (2002) model may be seen to imply three components of SI:
(a) the ability to create meaning based on deep understanding of existential questions,
(b) an awareness of and the ability to use multiple levels of consciousness in problem solving, and
(c) an awareness of the interconnection of all beings to each other and to the transcendent (Amram.2009. p.45).
George (2006) proposed that: "Rational intelligence manages facts and information, using logic and analysis to make decisions. Emotional intelligence, meanwhile, is needed to understand and control one's emotions and feelings, while being sensitive to the feelings of others. Spiritual intelligence is necessary to:
- find and use the deepest inner resources from which come the capacity to care and the
power to tolerate and adapt;
- develop a clear and stable sense of identity as an individual in the context of shifting
workplace relationships;
- be able to discern the real meaning of events and circumstances, and be able to make
work meaningful;
- identify and align personal values with a clear sense of purpose;
- live those vales without compromise and thereby demonstrate integrity by example; and
- understand where and how each of the above is sabotaged by the ego, which means
being able to understand and influence ‘‘true cause''. (George, M. 2006. p.3)
MacHovec (2002) has illustrated a number of differences between spiritual intelligence and traditional intelligence.
SI construct include: non-specific, symbolic, unifies, self-actualization, qualitative, spiritual.
Traditional construct include: specific, semantic, self-control, quantitative, temporal (Nasel, D, D. 2004. p.44).
And now Amram (2007) developed an ecumenical grounded theory of SI based on interviews with 71 people of different spiritual traditions designated as spiritually intelligent by their associates. A minimum of four interviews was conducted within each of the following spiritual traditions: Buddhism, Christianity, Earth-Based (Shamanic and Pagan), Hindu, Islam/Sufism, Jewish, Non-Dual, Taoism, and Yoga (Amram, 2009. p.46).
Each interviewee was asked to describe their spirituality in terms of practices and qualities they cultivate in daily life; how spirituality informs their work and relationships; and how they integrate, manifest, and draw on their spirituality to help daily functioning.
At the end of the interview, the participants were asked to critically comment on the emergent themes from prior interviews (Amram, 2009. p.46).
From a qualitative analysis of these interviews, Amram (2007) identified seven major themes and several sub themes that emerged in the SI model (Amram, 2009. p.47).
These themes include:
1. Consciousness. Developed refined awareness and self-knowledge.
a. Mindfulness. Knowing self and living consciously with clear intention and mindful, embodied awareness and presence.
b. Trans-rational knowing. Transcending rationality through synthesis of paradoxes and using various states/modes of consciousness (e.g., meditation, prayer, silence, intuition, and dreams) to access knowledge.
c. Practice. using a variety of practices to develop and refine consciousness or spiritual qualities.
2. Grace. Living in alignment with the sacred, manifesting love for, and trust in life.
a. Sacred .living in alignment with the divine, a universal life force, nature, or one's true essential nature.
b. Love of life. reverence and cherishing of life based on gratitude, beauty, vitality, and joy.
c. Trust. hopeful/optimistic outlook based on faith or trust.
3. Meaning. Experiencing significance in daily activities through a sense of purpose and a call for service, including in the face of pain and suffering (Amram, 2009. p.47).
4. Transcendence .Going beyond the separate egoic self into an interconnected wholeness.
a. Relational I-Thou .nurturing relationships and community with acceptance, respect, empathy, compassion, loving-kindness, generosity, and I-Thou orientation.
b. Holism .utilize a systems perspective seeing the wholeness, unity, and the interconnections among diversity and differentiation.
5. Truth .Living in open acceptance, curiosity, and love for all creation (all that is).
a. Acceptance. Forgiveness, embrace, and love what is, including the negative and shadow.
b. Openness. Open heart and mind, open curiosity, including open respect for the wisdom of multiple traditions.
6. Serenity. Peaceful surrender to Self (Truth, God, Absolute, True nature).
a. Peacefulness. centered, equanimity, self-acceptance, self-compassion, and inner-wholeness.
b. Egoless-ness. Letting go of persona to maintain humble receptivity, surrendering, and allowing what wants and needs to happen.
7. Inner-Directedness. Inner-freedom aligned in responsible wise action.
a. Freedom. Liberation from conditioning, attachments and fears, manifesting courage, creativity, and playfulness.
b. Discernment. wisdom to know truth using an inner-compass (conscience).
c. Integrity. being/acting authentically, responsibly, and with alignment to one's values (Amram,2009. p.48).
Sisk (2008) identified many dimension of SQ as following:
Core capacities of SQ include: Concern with cosmic/existential issues and the skill of meditating, intuition, and visualization
Core values of SQ include: Connectedness, unity of all, compassion, a sense of balance, responsibility, and service.
Core experience of SQ include: Awareness of ultimate values and their meaning, feeling of transcendence, and heightened awareness
Key virtues of SQ include: Truth, justice, compassion, and caring
Symbolic systems of SQ include: Poetry, music, justice, dance, metaphor, and stories. (Sisk, D. 2008. p.25)
Development of SI:
a number of techniques, strategies, and practices have been identified as beneficial for development and enhancement SI.
Given this premise, there are essentially seven ways to raise or develop spiritual intelligence. They include:
- Think about your goals, desires and wants to bring your life into perspective and balance, and identify your values.
- Access your inner processes and use visualization to see your goals, desires and wants fulfilled; and experience the emotion connected with this fulfillment.
- Integrate your personal and universal vision and recognize your connectedness to others, to nature, to the world and to the universe.
Take responsibility for your goals, desires and wants.-
- Develop a sense of community by letting more people into your life.
- Focus on love and compassion.
- When chance knocks at your door, let it in and take advantage of coincidences (Sisk, 2002. p.212).
Levin (2000) argues that SI is exhibited when we live in a way that integrates spirituality into our daily life.
Levin suggests that the development of SI requires the recognition of our interconnection to all of life, and the capacity to utilize perceptual powers beyond the five senses including our intuition, which is seen as another level of consciousness and intelligence beyond analytical, linear, and rational thought (Amram.2009. p.45).
Levin (2000) have proposed the development of spiritual intelligence requires a change in perception and perspective (involving one's intuition), which provide a new basis for motives and intention that consequently shape behaviour. Furthermore, she has suggested that spiritual maturity, characterized by concern for the common good and involvement in the well-being of the greater whole, results from a well-developed spiritual intelligence. (Nasel. 2004. p.67)
Vaughan (2002), has suggested that spiritual intelligence develops with increased openness and the ability to empathies with diverse points of view, with greater sensitivity to and experience of subtle realities such as transcendent states and spirit realms, and with deeper understanding of symbolic, mythical and archetypal representations of the unfolding of consciousness. Thus, from this perspective, an open and contemplative mindset that tolerates uncertainty, paradox, and mystery, is beneficial to the growth of spiritual intelligence, whereas a rigid, closed, and definitive acceptance of a particular belief system may hinder its development (Nasel, 2004. p.63).
In fact, as mentioned earlier, open-mindedness has been identified as both a contributing factor to and result of the development of spiritual intelligence (Nasel, 2004. p.63).
From another perspective, commitment to any chosen spiritual practice has also been said to greatly facilitate the growth of spiritual intelligence. Such practices may include prayer, journaling, contemplation, self-reflection, yoga, meditation, psychotherapy, charitable service to others, and entering periods of silence or solitude . (Nasel. 2004. p.63)
Mystical or spiritual experiences are also able to contribute to the development of spiritual intelligence, particularly if they occur in a supportive and grounding context that facilitates their integration into everyday life (Nasel. 2004. p.63).
Zohar & marshall (2000) have proposed seven practical steps to better SQ include:
- Become aware of where I am now
- Feel strongly that I want to change
- Reflect on what my own centre is and what are my deepest motivations.
- Discover and dissolve obstacles
- Explore many possibilities to go forward
- Commit myself to a path
- Remain aware that there are many path (Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. 2000. p.264).
Buzan (2002) have introduced 10 ways to enhance SI include:
1-Getting the ‘Big Picture'
2-Exploring Your Values
Your values and principles determine your behaviour, and have a massive effect on the probability of your success in life.
3- Your Life Vision and Purpose
With a clear and defined purpose, your life will gain meaning and direction, and you will become healthier, stronger and more confident.
4-Compassion: Understanding Yourself and Others
5-Give and Receive! Charity and Gratitude
6- The Power of Laughter
Laughter is a vital quality of Spiritual Intelligence, and benefits you in many ways, including reducing stress levels and generally leading to a more cheerful and happier life.
7- Onward to the Child's Playground
Investigations have shown that the more Spiritually Intelligent you become, the more the childlike qualities of innocence you will be (Buzan. 2002. p.xii); and also cheerfulness, joyfulness, spontaneity, enthusiasm and adventure feeling increases in your life.
8-The Power of Ritual which provides stability and opportunity for regeneration, and strengthens a sense of connection with oneself and others
9- Peace
Cultivate your inner peace through the practice of techniques such as contemplation and meditation
10-All You Need Is Love! (Buzan, T. 2002. p.Xvii).
Likely traits of SQ and ways to strengthen them gleaned from the work of Sisk and Torrance (2001) are presented such as:
Likely trait:
Uses inner knowing; Seek to understand self; Uses metaphor and probable to communicate; Sensitive to social problem; Sensitivity to their purpose in their life; Concerned about inequity and injustice; Wants to make a difference; Capacity to care; Curious about how the world work;
Values love, compassion, concern for other; Close to nature; Use virtualization and mental imaging
Reflective, self-observing and self-aware; Seek balance; Concerned about right conduct
Seek to understand self; Feel connected with others; earth and universe; Wants to make a difference peacemaker, Concerned with human suffering and so on.
Ways to strengthen
Provide time for reflective thinking; Use journal writing and processing; Read lives of spiritual pathfinders; Use problem solving (predicting); Conduct service-learning projects; Use personal growth activities; Use problem -based learning; Provide time for open-ended discussion, Employ eco-environment approach; Study lives of spiritual pathfinder; Read stories and myth; Use role-playing/sociodrama; Discussions and goal setting activities; Process discussions; Trusts intuition and inner voice; Use what, so what, now what model; Use negotiation/conflict/sessions; Study lives of eminent people and so on.
(Sisk. 2008. p.27)
BA Governmental Management (Public Administration), University of Ferdowsi Mashhad
MA Governmental Management (Public Administration), Azad University, Mashhad
