There are many theories to explain their purpose, depending on their location, age, and the type of image. Some petroglyphs are thought to be astronomical markers, maps, and other forms of symbolic communication, including a form of “pre-writing”. Petroglyph maps may show trails, symbols communicating time and distances traveled, as well as the local terrain in the form of rivers, landforms and other geographic features. A petroglyph that represents a landform or the surrounding terrain is known as a Geocontourglyph. They might also have been a by-product of other rituals: sites in India, for example, have been identified as musical instruments or “rock gongs”.

Some petroglyph images probably had deep cultural and religious significance for the societies that created them; in many cases this significance remains for their descendants. Many petroglyphs are thought to represent some kind of not-yet-fully understood symbolic or ritual language. Later glyphs from the Nordic Bronze Age in Scandinavia seem to refer to some form of territorial boundary between tribes, in addition to possible religious meanings. It also appears that local or regional dialects from similar or neighboring peoples exist. The Siberian inscriptions almost look like some early form of runes, although there is not thought to be any relationship between them. They are not yet well understood.

Some researchers have noticed the resemblance of different styles of petroglyphs across different continents; while it is expected that all people would be inspired by their surroundings, it is harder to explain the common styles. This could be mere coincidence, an indication that certain groups of people migrated widely from some initial common area, or indication of a common origin. In 1853 George Tate read a paper to the Berwick Naturalists’ Club at which a Mr John Collingwood Bruce agreed that the carvings had “… a common origin, and indicate a symbolic meaning, representing some popular thought.” In his cataloguing of Scottish rock art, Ronald Morris summarised 104 different theories on their interpretation.

Other, more controversial, explanations are grounded in Jungian psychology and the views of Mircea Eliade. According to these theories it is possible that the similarity of petroglyphs (and other atavistic or archetypal symbols) from different cultures and continents is a result of the genetically inherited structure of the human brain.

Other theories suggest that petroglyphs were made by shamans in an altered state of consciousness, perhaps induced by the use of natural hallucinogens. Many of the geometric patterns (known as form constants) which recur in petroglyphs and cave paintings have been shown by David Lewis-Williams to be “hard-wired” into the human brain; they frequently occur in visual disturbances and hallucinations brought on by drugs, migraine and other stimuli.

Present-day links between shamanism and rock-art amongst the San people of the Kalahari desert have been studied by the Rock Art Research Institute (RARI) of the University of the Witwatersrand [http://rockart.wits.ac.za]. Though the San people’s artworks are predominantly paintings, the beliefs behind them can perhaps be used as a basis for understanding other types of rock art, including petroglyphs. To quote from the RARI website:

:”Using knowledge of San beliefs, researchers have shown that the art played a fundamental part in the religious lives of its San painters. The art captured things from the San’s world behind the rock-face: the other world inhabited by spirit creatures, to which dancers could travel in animal form, and where people of ecstasy could draw power and bring it back for healing, rain-making and capturing the game.”

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Petroglyph, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Josephus Gerhardus Rulof (February 20, 1898, ‘s-Heerenberg – November 3, 1952) was a Dutch author who was known as a psychic and trance medium or spirit medium. He wrote about thirty books about life, death, and the hereafter.

Rulof claimed to be the greatest medium ever, and that nobody would ever surpass him. The next great medium would be the “Direct Voice Apparatus” (DVA), a technical device that would enable us to communicate directly with the spirit world. The DVA would be based on another device to make all diseases disappear.

He claimed he was under the control of two guides: master Alcar and master Zelanus.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Jozef Rulof, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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His team assesses the recovery of neurological disability and of neuronal plasticity in severely brain damaged patients with altered states of consciousness by means of multimodal functional neuroimaging. It aims at characterizing the brain structure and the residual cerebral function in patients who survive a severe brain injury: patients in coma, vegetative state, minimally conscious state and locked in syndrome.

The importance of this project is twofold. First, these patients represent a problem in terms of diagnosis, prognosis, treatment and daily management. Second, these patients offer the opportunity to explore human consciousness, which is presently one major conundrum neurosciences have to solve. Indeed, these patients present a complete, nearly graded, range of conscious states from unconsciousness (coma) to full awareness (locked-in syndrome).

This research confronts clinical expertise and bedside behavioral evaluation of altered states of consciousness with state-of-the-art multimodal imaging combining the information from positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), structural MRI, electroencephalography (EEG), event related potential (ERP) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) data.

Rom Houben

In 2006 Laureys used the latest brain-scan technology on Rom Houben, who had been diagnosed as being in a vegetative state since a car crash in 1983. Houben’s brain was found to be functioning almost normally. With appropriate treatment Houben was subsequently able to move enough to read, move his feet, and commu

it received extensive newspaper coverage first in German

later in a number of English media.

Prominent skeptics such as James Randi have pointed out that Mr. Houben’s means of communication via keyboard clearly resembles facilitated communication, where it is a facilitator and not the patient who is actively pressing the buttons by guiding the patient’s hand, thus raising questions about both Mr. Houben’s ability to communicate and Dr. Laurey’s diagnosis. Others point out that after 23 years in a locked-in state, it is improbable that the man would be able to communicate lucidly. If Houben is truly locked in, the neurological mechanism by which he is able to generate enough pressure in his fingers to type with assistance is yet unclear.Further testing, such as asking Mr. Houben to describe a few simple objects that are carefully kept hidden from everyone in the room but him, skeptics suggest, might put these suspicions of fraud at rest.

However, according to the Times Laureys says that he has verified that the facilitated communication is genuine, by showing Houben objects when the facilitator was not present in the room, and later asking Houben to recall those objects. Skeptics, however, observe that Dr. Laureys does not appear to have used proper controls in his testing and thus could easily have been deceived, either through others in the room cueing the facilitator directly or through the Clever Hans effect; if anyone in the room is aware of what is shown to Mr. Houben but Mr. Houben himself until he has described it, then the test’s results are suspect. This includes Dr. Laureys or any other person administering the test.

In an interview with the Belgian newspaper De Standaard, Laureys states that he was not involved in the choice of communication method. He claims to be “a skeptic myself” and acknowledges that “the bad reputation of some forms [of facilitated communication] is justified”. He also claims that Houbens case was only made public because ”Der Spiegel” wanted to report on his study and was looking for a “human element” to the story: “I knew that Rom and his family were willing to collaborate because they had done so before [for a Flemish TV channel].” However, he also criticizes some of the negative feedback for “judging the evidence only on the basis of some video footage” and declares that “given time, we will look scientifically into the different ways of communication. For us, this seems to be the proper way.” In the meantime, Laureys did more tests with the result that it wasn’t Houben doing the writing after all.

At a congress in London on February 16, 2010, Laureys came back on his claims that he had been able to communicate with the patient, after extensive new tests. “The words that Houben produced in November, were not the product of Houben but of the person assisting with the tests,” he said. “We now must try and find new ways of communicating with Rom, as I am still convinced that he is conscious.”

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Steven Laureys, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Her supernatural abilities were visible from early years. As a child, she frequently broke into unusual condition, in which she saw exotic places, faraway countries and never-before seen people. She was then in a somnolence and did not react to external impulses. Her siblings would stop playing with her and Pilchowa withdrew into herself, gladly spending her time outside. As she later wrote:

”I had been born a clairvoyant. Whenever I am supposed to look into the world of the spirit, I do not need to fall into a trance. I do not need to use any medications; at first, I had to close my eyes. Now, I do not even have to do this”.

When Pilchowa was a child, her mother remarried. The stepfather hated her so much that he would order the girl to do the heaviest chores on the family farm. She was always obedient and humble; as a child, she wanted to become a nun. Pilchowa would often find herself near a local convent, but at the age of 18, she changed her mind and joined the Spiritist Society of Cieszyn Silesia. However, other members of the Society, seeing the easiness with which she managed to get into a trance, came to the conclusion that Pilchowa was a cheater. After several heated arguments, the young woman left the organization.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Agnieszka Pilchowa, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Stanislav Grof (born July 1, 1931 in Prague, Czechoslovakia) is one of the founders of the field of transpersonal psychology and a pioneering researcher into the use of non-ordinary states of consciousness for purposes of analysing, healing, and obtaining growth and insight into the human psyche. Grof received the VISION 97 award granted by the Foundation of Dagmar and Václav Havel in Prague on October 5, 2007.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Stanislav Grof, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Ireland has the largest concentration of megalithic art in Europe, particularly in the Boyne Valley. This art form appears to be entirely abstract and is perhaps the most famous with its well known multiple-spirals. It is believed that much of this artwork is entoptically derived from induced states of altered consciousness (Dronfield 1993). Stylistically the art of Ireland is similar to occasional finds in nearby Wales and the Scottish Isles.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Megalithic art, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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When smoked, the effects of cannabis manifest within seconds and are fully apparent within a few minutes, typically lasting for 2–3 hours.

Somatic effects

Some of the short-term physical effects of cannabis use include increased heart rate, dry mouth, reddening of the eyes (congestion of the conjunctival blood vessels), a reduction in intra-ocular pressure, muscle relaxation, and a sensation of cold or hot hands and feet.

Psychoactive effects

The psychoactive effects of cannabis, known as a “high”, are subjective and can vary based on the individual and the method of use. Some effects may include an altered state of consciousness, euphoria, feelings of well-being, relaxation or stress reduction, increased appreciation of humor, music or art, joviality, metacognition and introspection, enhanced recollection (episodic memory), increased sensuality, increased awareness of sensation, increased libido, disruption of linear memory or thought, nostalgia, and paranoia or anxiety.

Cannabis also produces many subjective effects, such as greater enjoyment of food taste and aroma, and an enhanced enjoyment of music and art. One of the more peculiar effects of cannabis is the distortion of the perception of time and space (where experiencing an up rush of ideas from the bank of long-term memory can create the subjective impression of long elapsed time, while a clock reveals that only a short time has passed). At higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynapt

Neurological effects

Experiments on animal and human tissue have demonstrated disruption of short-term memory, which is consistent with the abundance of CB1 receptors on the hippocampus, the region of the brain most closely associated with memory. Cannabinoids inhibit the release of several neurotransmitters in the hippocampus, like acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and glutamate, resulting in a major decrease in neuronal activity in that region. This decrease in activity resembles a “temporary hippocampal lesion.” In the end, this process could lead to the blocking of cellular processes that are associated with memory formation.

Cannabis consumption affects motor skills, reflexes, and attention, which is important when considering its effects on driving; however, this does not necessarily reflect impairment in terms of performance effectiveness, since few studies report increased accident risk.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Effects of cannabis, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Trance is a genre of electronic dance music that developed in the 1990s. Trance music is generally characterized by a tempo of between 120 and 140 BPM, short melodic synthesizer phrases, and a musical form that builds up and down throughout a track. It is a combination of many forms of music such as industrial, techno, and house. The origin of the term is uncertain, with some suggesting that the term is derived from the Klaus Schulze album Trancefer (1981) or the early trance act Dance 2 Trance. In any case, the name is undoubtedly linked to the ability of music to induce an altered state of consciousness known as a trance. The effect of some trance music has been likened to the trance-inducing music created by ancient shamanists during long periods of drumming.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Trance music, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The psychoactive effects of cannabis, known as a “high”, are subjective and can vary based on the individual and the method of use. Some effects may include an altered state of consciousness, euphoria, feelings of well-being, relaxation or stress reduction, increased appreciation of humor, music or art, joviality, metacognition and introspection, enhanced recollection (episodic memory), increased sensuality, increased awareness of sensation, increased libido, creative or philosophical thinking, disruption of linear memory and paranoia or anxiety.

Cannabis also produces many subjective effects, such as greater enjoyment of food taste and aroma, an enhanced enjoyment of music and comedy, and marked distortions in the perception of time and space (where experiencing an up rush of ideas from the bank of long-term memory can create the subjective impression of long elapsed time, while a clock reveals that only a short time has passed). At higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some cases, cannabis can lead to depersonalization and derealization; such effects are most often considered desirable, but have the potential to induce extreme anxiety and paranoia in some unaccustomed users.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Short-term effects of cannabis, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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In 188 BC, Paculla is said to have allowed men to participate for the first time, although it is now believed that men had participated before that. The first men to be initiated were her sons, Minius and Herennius Cerrinius. She also ordered the festivities to take place by night instead of by day, and decided that instead of taking place over three days in a year there would be five days of initiation in each month. Participants of the ceremonies were to be of all sorts: men and women, young and old, noble and common people, free and slaves — all in a celebration of wine and sex. Finally, as a rule, it was decided that no-one older than twenty should be initiated.

In the rites, men were said to have shrieked out prophecies in an altered state of consciousness with frenzied bodily convulsions. Women, dressed as Bacchantes, with hair dishevelled, would run down to the Tiber with burning torches, plunge them into the water, and take them out again. Their flames would not diminish as they were made of sulphur mixed with lime.

The rites gradually turned into sexual orgies, particularly among the men, and men who refused to take part were sacrificed. It is said these men were fastened to a machine and taken to hidden caves, where it was claimed they were kidnapped by the gods.

The festivities were reported to Postumius who persuaded the Roman Senate to authorize a full investigation. In 186 BC, the Senate passed a strict law (the ”Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus”) prohibiting the Bacchanalia except under specific circumstances which required the approval of

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Paculla Annia, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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